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THE DESIGN ELEMENTS
Design Elements refer to the components of Visual Communication, they are eight ways to describe the manner in which an aesthetic or style was created within a particular design.
WHAT IS POINT?
Point refers to small, round elements that can be used in design to create visual interest, patterns, and texture. The use of point in design can also be used to appeal to specific audiences by creating an emotional connection and reinforcing the intended message.
EXAMPLE
he designer used a bright red point to draw attention to the logo's focal point.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS LINE?
A continuous or broken mark that can be used to define shape, create texture, or lead the viewer's eye.
EXAMPLE
The thin, straight lines in the design gave a sleek and modern feel to the product packaging.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS SHAPE?
Shapes are another basic element of design that can be used to create visual interest, convey meaning, and evoke emotions. Like lines, the use of shape in design can also be used to appeal to specific audiences by creating an emotional connection and reinforcing the intended message
EXAMPLE
The use of simplistic, geometric shapes such as circles and squares created a bold aesthetic.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS FORM?
Form refers to the three-dimensional aspect of an object, and it is another important element of design that can be used to create visual interest and evoke emotions. The use of form in design can also be used to appeal to specific audiences by creating an emotional connection and reinforcing the intended message.
EXAMPLE
The smooth, flowing, organic form of the furniture piece created a dramatic and dynamic presence in the room.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS TONE?
Tonal value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color, and it is an important aspect of design that can be used to create visual interest and evoke emotions.
EXAMPLE
The designer used a combination of light and dark warm tones to create a sense of warmth and comfort in the design.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS TEXTURE?
Tonal value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color, and it is an important aspect of design that can be used to create visual interest and evoke emotions.
EXAMPLE
The designer used a combination of light and dark warm tones to create a sense of warmth and comfort in the design.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS TYPE?
Type refers to the use of letterforms, numbers, and symbols in design, and it is a crucial element in conveying information and creating visual interest. The use of type in design can also be used to appeal to specific audiences by creating an emotional connection and reinforcing the intended message.
EXAMPLE
The designer chose a bold, sans-serif typeface to create a sense of strength and authority in the brand's messaging.
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS COLOUR?
Color is an essential aspect of design that can greatly impact the overall look and feel of a design, as well as evoke emotions and convey meaning. The use of color in design can be used to appeal to specific audiences by creating an emotional connection and reinforcing the intended message.
EXAMPLE
The designer used a cool, muted colour palette to create a calming and sophisticated atmosphere.
EXAMPLES
Worked example
Using the selected design example, discuss the function of two design elements. (6 Marks)
Opening sentence (Contention + Key Terms):
Introduces both design elements and states how they function in the packaging.
Specific evidence from the design example:
Points out observable uses of the selected elements.
Design language description:
Uses terminology and tone appropriate to design vocabulary.
Function in context:
Connects visual choices to purpose and consumer experience.
THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The design principles describe how items are composed on a design, it discusses their relationship with other items within their design.
WHAT IS BALANCE?
Balance is a design principle that refers to the distribution of visual weight within a composition. A designer may use balance to create a harmonious and stable design that is visually pleasing and easy on the eye. This can be achieved through the use of symmetry or asymmetry. Symmetrical balance uses mirroring elements to create a sense of stability, while asymmetrical balance uses uneven elements to create interest. By balancing elements in a design, a designer can create a composition that feels stable and harmonious, and that guides the viewer’s eye around the design. Effective use of balance is essential in design, as it helps to create a composition that is visually appealing and easy to understand.
EXAMPLE
An asymmetrical balance was created through the bright, bold square on the left being balanced by the much larger, circle that has a more subtle tone on the right.
DESCRIBING WORDS
Asymmetrical, symmetrical '('mirrored')', harmonious, stable, dynamic.
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS FIGURE/GROUND?
Figure-ground is a design principle that refers to the relationship between an object (the figure) and its background (the ground). In a design, the figure-ground relationship helps to create visual interest and draw attention to specific elements. A designer may use figure-ground by contrasting the figure and ground through techniques such as color, value, texture, and size. The figure should be distinct and stand out from the background, while the background should provide context and support the figure. By effectively manipulating the figure-ground relationship, a designer can create a visually compelling design that guides the viewer’s attention and communicates information effectively.
EXAMPLE
The designer used a contrasting background '('ground')' to make the product '('figure')'stand out.
DESCRIBING WORDS
Figure '('items in the foreground')', Ground '('the background')', depth, sharp, contrasting.
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS HIERARCHY
A designer uses hierarchy in a design to establish a clear visual order and guide the viewer’s attention. This is achieved by arranging elements in order of importance, from the most prominent to the least prominent. Hierarchy is created by using techniques such as size, placement, color, and typography to differentiate between elements and reate a clear visual structure. A strong hierarchy helps to create an organized, easyto-follow design that effectively communicates information and leads the viewer through the composition.
EXAMPLE
The designer used a combination of scale and contrast to ensure the title was hierarchically dominant over the smaller, more subtle body text.
DESCRIBING WORDS
Clear, structured, organized, ordered, prioritized.
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS PATTERN?
Pattern is a repeating or alternating design element that can be used to add visual interest and texture to a composition. A designer may use pattern in a design to create a cohesive look and feel, provide a background for other elements, and draw the viewer’s eye. This can be done through the use of repeating or alternating shapes, lines, colors, or textures. Patterns can be simple or complex, and can be used to convey a specific mood or theme. For example, a designer may use a floral pattern to create a feminine or organic feel, or a geometric pattern to create a modern or technical feel.
EXAMPLE
The designer used a repeating pattern to create a cohesive and unified branding identity.
DESCRIBING WORDS
Unified, repetitive, cohesive, decorative, symmetrical.
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS CONTRAST?
Contrast is a design principle that refers to the difference between elements in a composition. A designer may use contrast to create visual interest, emphasize important elements, and guide the viewer’s attention. This can be achieved through the use of color, value, size, placement, and typography. For example, using light text on a dark background creates high contrast, while using similar colors creates low contrast. By using contrast, a designer can draw the viewer’s eye to specific areas, create hierarchy, and make a design more visually appealing, legible, and easy to understand.
EXAMPLE
The designer used high contrast colours to create a bold and striking effect.
DESCRIBING WORDS
High contrast, low contrast, complimentary, harmonious
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS SCALE?
A designer uses scale to create visual hierarchy and control the viewer’s focus by adjusting the size of design elements such as typography, images, and graphics. Scale helps to establish proportion and balance, convey a specific mood or theme, and guide the eye. By using contrasting scales, designers can emphasize important elements and create emphasis. Proper use of scale is essential in design, as it greatly impacts the overall look and feel of a composition.
EXAMPLE
The designer used large typography to emphasise the headline.
DESCRIBING WORDS
Large, small, contrasting, relative.
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS PROPORTION?
Proportion refers to the stretching of elements, making certain lines thicker or longer than their counterparts, the stretching of objects outside their expected proportions can create unusual and striking aesthetics. Whereas maintaining proportions to what is expected, such as using the golden ratio or correct measurements when depicting a human figure can make a design seem harmonious and aesthetically pleasing, this is referred to as ‘classic proportions’.
EXAMPLE
The figure was stretched vertically to create a unique and striking aesthetic
DESCRIBING WORDS
Proportionate, stretched, disproportional.
EXAMPLE
WHAT IS CROPPING?
Cropping is the process of trimming or eliminating parts of an image or visual element in a design. A designer may use cropping to emphasize a specific aspect of an image, create visual interest, or eliminate distractions. By carefully choosing what to include and what to exclude in the frame, a designer can control the viewer’s focus and create a stronger composition. Cropping can also be used to change the aspect ratio of an image or to fit it into a specific space. Effective use of cropping can help to create a visually compelling design that effectively communicates information and draws the viewer’s eye.
EXAMPLE
The close-up cropping of the product image highlighted its unique features.
DESCRIBING WORDS
Focused, dramatic, intense, dynamic, close-up.
EXAMPLE
Worked example
Using the selected design example, discuss how the designer has used two design principles in combination. (6 Marks)
Opening sentence (Contention + Key Terms):
Clearly states the two design principles used and their function in the example.
Specific evidence from the design example:
Visual features are named and linked to the chosen principles.
Design language description:
Uses appropriate design vocabulary with precision.
Function in context:
Explains why the visual choices matter.
THE GESTALT PRINCIPLES
The Gestalt Principles are the components of visual language used by designers to communicate information and ideas.
How close items are positioned.
THE THEORY OF PROXIMITY
Items that are near each other tend to be perceived as a group. This principle improves design by organizing information and creating visual hierarchy.
EXAMPLE
The proximity between the two circular items within the logo suggest a connection between the two.
EXAMPLE
A real or implied continuation of items, often achieved through their positioning.
THE THEORY OF CONTINUITY
Items that are aligned and flowing smoothly are perceived as a single entity. This principle improves design by creating a sense of unity and guiding the viewer's eye through the composition.
EXAMPLE
The horizontal alignment, anchored to the left, of the type with the motif above creates a sense of unity between the two items.
EXAMPLE
Items which share the same visual characteristics.
THE THEORY OF SIMILARITY
Items that share visual characteristics are perceived as a group. This principle improves design by creating visual patterns and emphasizing relationships between elements.
EXAMPLE
The three items in which the logo is comprised, all share the same base red colour, which creates a sense of continuity and cohesion between the items.
EXAMPLE
Shapes formed by implied connections, such as opposing lines which would connect if they continued.
THE THEORY OF CLOSURE
The mind tends to fill in gaps and complete incomplete shapes or forms. This principle improves design by allowing the viewer to interpret the composition and engage with it.
EXAMPLE
The four right angle triangles are positioned in a manner which creates an illusion of a square through their implied connection.
EXAMPLE
Items which are repeated along a path.
THE THEORY OF COMMON FATE
Items that move together tend to be perceived as a group. This principle improves design by creating dynamic and cohesive compositions.
EXAMPLE
The six squares which repeat at equal distances, offset diagonally, create a sense of an upward jumping movement in the logo.
EXAMPLE
Figure means the item in front or prominent, Ground means the item which the figure sits on, such as the background.
THE THEORY OF FIGURE/GROUND
Figure ground (The relationship between foreground and background')' is an effective tool because the mind differentiates objects from their background. This principle improves design by creating contrast and emphasizing important elements.
EXAMPLE
The logo uses a strong circular, contrasting background to draw the viewers attention inward, toward the white figure positioned centrally over the ground.
EXAMPLE
The item which stands out most to the viewer.
THE THEORY OF FOCAL POINT
An item that stands out from the rest will attract the viewer's attention. This principle improves design by creating emphasis and guiding the viewer's eye to a specific area.
EXAMPLE
The designer has used the principles of contrast and scale to create a strong focal point in this logo, drawing the viewers eye toward the motif.
EXAMPLE
Worked example
Describe how two Gestalt principles have been used to communicate to the end user within this interactive experience design. (6 Marks)
Opening sentence (Key Gestalt principles + purpose):
Clearly names the Gestalt principles and their function in the design.
Specific evidence from the interface:
Mentions visible features and how they reflect the chosen principles.
Use of terminology:
Accurate Gestalt terms are applied to visual features.
Function in context:
Explains why these principles are helpful for the user.
DIETER RAMS
Dieter Rams was a German industrial designer who worked for the consumer electronics company Braun for several decades. He is known for his minimalist and functionalist approach to design, which has had a profound influence on modern product design.
Rams developed a set of principles of good design in the 1970s that are still widely used and respected today. The purpose of these principles is to guide designers in creating products that are not only visually appealing, but also functional, intuitive, and environmentally sustainable.
GOOD DESIGN IS INNOVATIVE
Innovation refers to a design that is new, or that expands on current design.
THE THEORY
Good design is innovative - it breaks new ground and offers original solutions to problems.
EXAMPLE
Apple's iPhone, which revolutionized mobile phone design with its touchscreen interface.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS USEFUL
Usefulness describes a design that is helpful and achieves a worthwhile aim.
THE THEORY
Good design makes a product useful - it serves a clear purpose and meets the needs of its users.
Example
The Dyson Airblade hand dryer, which is fast, hygienic, and energy efficient.
EXAMPLE
The thin, straight lines in the design gave a sleek and modern feel to the product packaging.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS AESTHETIC
Aesthetic refers to how visually pleasing a design is.
THE THEORY
Good design is aesthetic - it is visually pleasing and engages the senses.
Example
The Porsche 911, which is celebrated for its sleek and timeless design.
EXAMPLE
The use of simplistic, geometric shapes such as circles and squares created a bold aesthetic.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS UNDERSTANDABLE
Understandable means how easy it is for people to learn the message or function of a design.
THE THEORY
Good design makes a product understandable - it communicates its function and features clearly.
EXAMPLE
The Nest thermostat, which simplifies the process of programming and controlling home heating.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS UNOBTRUSIVE
Unobtrusive means that the design itself doesn’t attract attention, allowing the viewer to focus on its message or function.
THE THEORY
Good design is unobtrusive - it does not draw attention to itself or interfere with the user's experience.
EXAMPLE
The Google search engine, which is simple and intuitive to use.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS HONEST
Honest design does exactly what it implies it does.
THE THEORY
Good design is honest - it does not pretend to be something it is not or deceive the user.
EXAMPLE
The Muji brand, which is known for its minimal and transparent design.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS LONG LASTING
Long lasting discusses whether the aesthetic style or physical product will last long.
THE THEORY
Good design is long-lasting - it is durable, reliable, and environmentally friendly.
EXAMPLE
The Herman Miller Aeron chair, which is designed to last for years and can be easily disassembled and recycled.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS THOROUGH
Thorought means the design is completely resolved; every aspect has been refined and thought through carefully.
THE THEORY
Good design is thorough - it considers every detail and aspect of a product or system.
EXAMPLE
The London Underground map, which is a masterful example of information design.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY
How much a design impacts the environment, either in how it is built or how it is used.
THE THEORY
Good design is environmentally friendly - it minimizes waste and harm to the environment.
EXAMPLE
The Tesla electric car, which offers a sustainable and efficient alternative to traditional gasoline-powered cars.
EXAMPLE
GOOD DESIGN IS MINIMALISTIC
Minmalistic means not having any features or aspects which are do not contribute to the designs purpose.
THE THEORY
Good design is as little design as possible - it removes any unnecessary elements and focuses on GOOD DESIGN IS essential.
EXAMPLE
This interior design calls on minimalist philosophies to create a clean and modern aesthetic.
EXAMPLE
Worked example
Discuss how two conceptions of good design have been considered within this object design. (6 Marks)
Opening sentence (Key conceptions + function):
Clearly names two conceptions and outlines how the product meets them.
Specific features linked to conceptions:
Points to observable parts of the product and links them to the designer’s intentions.
Design language and tone:
Uses specific vocabulary that reflects design thinking and clarity.
Function in context:
Explains how the design helps the user in real-world use.
Design Fields
The production of visual communications which influence behaviour, educate viewers, guiding decision-making and/or express values and ideals.
Careers
Graphic design, information design, digital and web design, advertising, print publication/book illustration and typographic design, package/surface design, logo design and brand identity design.
Distinguishing Characteristics
Type conventions, layouts and use of grids and packaging (nets and surface graphics), print based and digital applications and presentation formats.
The design of the built environment.
Careers
Architectural design, interior design, landscape design, set design and exhibition/display design.
Distinguishing Characteristics
The use of Drawing methods such as Three-dimensional drawing methods (Planometric and perspective). Two-dimensional drawing methods (Floorplans and Elevations)
The design of objects that improve the quality of life for people, communities, and societies, while also upgrading or improving existing designs
Careers
Product design and furniture design.
Distinguishing Characteristics
The use of Drawing methods such as Three-dimensional drawing methods (Isometric and perspective). Two-dimensional drawing methods (third angle orthogonal)
The use of interactive interface design to engage with people in the online and physical space.
Careers
User Interface Designer, User Experience Designer, Web Designer
Distinguishing Characteristics
May include the use of symbols, icons, images, sound, animation and type.
Design Interactions
The production of visual communications which influence behaviour, educate viewers, guiding decision-making and/or express values and ideals.
Stakeholders are individuals or groups who have an interest or involvement in a design project. Stakeholders provide input, feedback, and requirements throughout the design process, ensuring that the final product meets their needs and expectations. Their involvement is crucial for creating successful and effective designs.
Types of Stakeholders
Clients, users, team members
The design of the built environment.
The design critique is a key component of design studio culture and professional practice. It is a review and analysis of a design, typically conducted by a group of designers or stakeholders. The purpose of a design critique is to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a design, identify areas for improvement, and provide constructive feedback to the designer.
Items that can be Critiqued
Visual Appeal, Functionality, User Experience, technical Aspects, whether the design communicates effectively and it's level of innovativeness.
The design of objects that improve the quality of life for people, communities, and societies, while also upgrading or improving existing designs
A design pitch is a presentation that outlines a proposed design solution for a specific problem or challenge. It typically includes an overview of the design problem, the proposed solution, and its potential impact.
Design Pitches can include:
Presentation of Research and analysis of the problem and its context, Design Concepts or Prototypes of the proposed design solution, A timeline and budget for the project and Examples of similar projects or designs that inspired the proposed solution.
Intellectual Property
Immediately granted to the original designer
Copyright is the rights given to protect any finished work produced by an individual, such as a drawing, a musical score, a painting or a poem. This protects the original designer from people copying their work directly, regardless of whether it is for personal use or commercial use
Requires design registration
Patent is the legal protection of particular components or features of a design, normally an object design, to ensure that the unique and innovative aspects of a design are protected. For example, a patent could be granted for an invention like a new type of solar panel that is more efficient and cost-effective than existing models.
Requires design registration
Trademarks are designed to protect other companies from implying a connection with an existing brand, by mimicing aspects of their branding that people identify them by. An example of this is that QANTAS have trademarked the white kangaroo n the rear of their planes, no other company can now put a kangaroo on the rear of their planes, regardless of whether it is the exact same design.
Worked example
Discuss how the designer may have worked with a specialist during the deliver stage of the design process. (4 Marks)
During the deliver stage, the designer could have collaborated with a CNC technician to refine the laminated wooden frame components for the chair.Opening sentence with contention:
Identify the stage (deliver) and the specialist (CNC technician), stating why this expertise was essential.
Evidence with design language:
Connect the tiling advice to manufacturing efficiency and accurate alignment of curved parts.
DESIGN PRACTICES
Different designers develop distinct characteristics based on the contexts in which they work. A designer’s visual language, design style and approach to problem-solving are shaped by the scale of their projects, the audiences they design for, the stakeholders and specialists involved, and the ethical, legal and practical constraints they must respond to. This presentation introduces six key characteristics used to describe and compare design practices.
CONTEXTS
Contexts describe the environment and structures in which a designer works, such as whether they work locally or globally, in-house or freelance, and at small or large scale. Context influences timelines, budgets, access to technology and resources, and the legal and ethical frameworks that guide decisions. It also affects which specialists and stakeholders are involved and how complex the design process becomes.
DESIGNER SPOTLIGHT: JONY IVE (OBJECT DESIGN)
Case study focus: context.
Jony Ive’s work is often used as an example of designing within a large, high-profile in-house context. In this kind of setting, design decisions are shaped by long-term product roadmaps, strict confidentiality, and collaboration across multiple teams. Designers may work with engineers and manufacturing specialists to test materials, finishes and tolerances, while also responding to marketing, brand strategy and user research. Large-scale contexts typically involve high expectations for quality control, extensive prototyping, and careful planning for mass production. This means the designer’s process must balance creativity with feasibility, cost, supply chains and timelines. The audience can be global, so decisions about usability, ergonomics, durability and accessibility need to work for many people in many contexts. Stakeholders may include company leadership, product managers, suppliers, retailers and end users. A key learning point for students is that a designer’s context influences what is possible: an in-house team can access advanced prototyping and specialist knowledge, but may face tighter constraints (deadlines, budgets, brand rules and technical requirements) than a smaller independent studio. (Specific processes vary by project.)
VISUAL LANGUAGE
Visual language is how designers communicate ideas, information and meaning. It includes the use of design elements and design principles, plus field-specific conventions like symbols, drawing systems and layout structures. Visual language choices are shaped by purpose, audience and the design field, and they influence how clearly and effectively a design communicates.
DESIGNER SPOTLIGHT: PAULA SCHER (MESSAGE DESIGN)
Case study focus: visual language.
Paula Scher is commonly discussed in relation to typography-led communication, where the visual language is designed to deliver meaning quickly and memorably. In message design, type is not just “text”; it becomes an image with personality, tone and impact. A designer working in this way might use strong contrast to separate key information, clear hierarchy, using structured or unstructured layout conventions, to guide reading order, and deliberate scale shifts to emphasise what matters most. Pattern (repetition and alternation) can create consistency across a brand system, while cropping and figure/ground decisions can build energy and clarity in crowded layouts. Visual language also connects to audience: the same message can feel formal, playful, urgent or trustworthy depending on type choices, spacing and composition. A designer like Scher may explore many variations to test how quickly a viewer understands the message, and whether the design suits the context (posters, signage, digital screens, publications). Students can use this spotlight to explain that visual language is not accidental: it’s a planned set of choices that helps a message communicate purposefully to a target audience, using design elements and design principles in combination. (Exact methods vary by project and brief.)
STAKEHOLDERS AND SPECIALISTS
Stakeholders are people who have an interest in the design outcome, such as the client, end users, broader audiences and regulatory bodies. Specialists provide expert input, such as engineers, developers, printers or researchers. Working with these people influences design criteria, constraints, feasibility and decision-making throughout the process.
DESIGNER SPOTLIGHT: BJARKE INGELS (ENVIRONMENT DESIGN)
Case study focus: stakeholders and specialists.
In environment design, architects and urban designers rarely work alone because projects must be safe, buildable, and approved. Bjarke Ingels is often referenced as a contemporary architect whose projects demonstrate collaboration across many roles. Stakeholders can include the client (developer, council or organisation), end users (residents, workers, visitors), neighbours and broader audiences affected by the building, plus regulatory bodies who oversee planning and building compliance. Specialists can include structural engineers, façade engineers, services consultants (electrical, mechanical, hydraulic), landscape architects, traffic and accessibility consultants, sustainability experts, and construction managers. Each specialist brings constraints and opportunities: an engineer might advise on spans and materials; an accessibility consultant might improve circulation and wayfinding; a sustainability specialist might set targets for energy and water. Designers must communicate ideas clearly using conventions such as plans, elevations, sections, 3D models and annotations so specialists can respond accurately. This spotlight helps students explain that stakeholder needs can conflict (cost vs comfort, speed vs quality, impact vs ambition), and the designer’s job includes negotiation and justification. Collaboration improves feasibility and safety, while also shaping the final experience of the space for real users. (Project teams vary depending on scale and location.)
EVALUATING
Evaluation is an ongoing process where designers check how well ideas meet the brief, audience needs and design criteria. Evaluation can include feedback, testing and refinement across multiple stages. Methods vary by field and may include usability testing, surveys, interviews, observation or data analysis.
DESIGNER SPOTLIGHT: DAVID KELLEY / IDEO (INTERACTIVE EXPERIENCE DESIGN)
Case study focus: evaluation.
IDEO (often associated with design thinking and human-centred design) is a useful example of a practice that treats evaluation as continuous, not “something done at the end”. In interactive experience design, evaluation is about how real people use, understand and feel about an experience. A typical approach begins by clarifying audience habits, mindsets and experiences, then creating early prototypes (paper sketches, clickable mock-ups, simple role-plays) that can be tested quickly. Feedback sessions, observation and short interviews help identify confusion points: what users notice first (hierarchy), what they miss (figure/ground issues), what they misinterpret, or where the flow breaks down. Designers then refine and test again, building evidence for decisions rather than guessing. Evaluation also includes checking success criteria linked to the brief: is it usable, accessible, efficient, and appropriate for the context? In team settings, evaluation becomes a shared language between designers, developers and stakeholders because it turns opinions into findings. Students can use this spotlight to explain that good design practice uses evaluation to reduce risk, improve clarity, and justify changes through tested insights. (Specific IDEO methods differ by project, client and timeframe.)
FACTORS
Design practices are influenced by social, environmental, economic, technological and cultural factors. These influences affect the problems designers prioritise, the materials and technologies available, and the expectations of audiences and clients. Different factors become more important depending on the field, purpose and context of the design.
DESIGNER SPOTLIGHT: SHIGERU BAN (ENVIRONMENT DESIGN)
Case study focus: factors.
Shigeru Ban is often discussed in relation to designing for real-world pressures, where social, environmental and economic factors strongly influence decisions. In environment design, factors can determine what materials are practical, what timeframes exist, and what outcomes matter most. For example, when communities face disasters or displacement, social needs (safety, dignity, privacy) can become urgent. Environmental factors may limit available resources or require lightweight, low-impact solutions. Economic factors often create tight budgets, pushing designers to consider affordability, local supply and simple construction methods. Technological factors can shape how ideas are developed (digital modelling, prefabrication, testing), but technology may also be limited on site, requiring adaptable solutions. Cultural factors influence what feels appropriate, respectful and functional for different communities, including spatial expectations and shared facilities. Students can use this spotlight to explain that factors do not sit “outside” the design process; they actively shape design criteria and constraints, and they can change from brief to brief. This is a strong reminder that “good design” is not one style—it is a response to the most important needs in a specific context, for a specific audience. (Examples vary by location and project.)
LEGAL AND ETHICAL
Designers must work within legal frameworks and consider ethical responsibilities to users and communities. Depending on the design field, this may include safety standards, accessibility requirements, privacy and data protection, copyright, sustainability and responsible design choices.
DESIGNER SPOTLIGHT: DON NORMAN (INTERACTIVE EXPERIENCE DESIGN)
Case study focus: legal and ethical obligations.
Don Norman is widely associated with user-centred design and usability, making his work a useful reference point when discussing what designers “should” do, not just what they “can” do. In interactive experience design, legal and ethical obligations often relate to accessibility, safety, privacy and fairness. A designer may need to ensure an interface is usable for people with diverse abilities (clear hierarchy, readable type, logical navigation), and that it doesn’t create harm through confusing layouts or misleading cues. Ethical practice also includes respecting users’ attention and choices: avoiding manipulative patterns, providing clear consent options, and communicating information honestly. Legal obligations vary by location and project, but can include data protection requirements, copyright and licensing for images/type, and meeting accessibility standards for digital products. This spotlight helps students explain that ethical thinking is part of the design process: designers anticipate impacts on end users and broader audiences, and they justify decisions using audience needs and responsibility, not just style. When students write about legal and ethical considerations, they should connect obligations to practical design choices—what changes were made, who benefits, and what risks are reduced. (Specific laws depend on jurisdiction and project scope.)
Worked example
Using a specific design example from two contemporary designers you have studied this year, compare how the selected designers have responded to factors that influence design. (8 marks)
Bjarke Ingels (architect, founder of BIG) designs large-scale buildings that combine function, play and public use, while Ian Spalter (digital designer, former Head of Design at Instagram) designs digital features that shape how people communicate online.Context:
Identify both contemporary designers and briefly summarise their practice to set up a meaningful comparison.
Identify factors:
Clearly name the factors you will compare. Because the question says “factors”, you must discuss more than one.
Designer 1 + factor + project:
Link one factor (technological) to a specific Ingels project, explaining how it constrained or enabled design decisions.
Designer 2 + compare:
Discuss the same factor for Spalter using a specific example, then compare similarities and differences directly.
Social factor (Designer 1):
Explain how Ingels’ decisions support people’s needs and interactions in a real-world space, linked to the chosen project.
Social factor (Designer 2) + compare:
Address the same factor for Spalter and compare how the social outcome is achieved differently in digital vs physical environments.
Cultural factor + compare:
Link cultural influence to each example and make a clear similarity/difference statement that connects directly to the projects.
Digital
Manual
Methods refer to the manual or digital processes used to evolve design ideas, concepts and solutions. Methods can include but are not limited to drawing, collage, printing, photography, model-making and prototyping.
Creating images using digital tools and software. Example: Sketching a character design on a tablet for a video game.
Combining various digital images to create a new artwork. Example: Merging photos and graphics for a mixed-media advertisement.
Crafting three-dimensional objects using computer software. Example: Designing a car prototype in a 3D modeling program for automotive design.
Creating images by hand using pencils or pens. Example: Sketching concept art for a new product design.
Applying pigments to a surface to create an image. Example: Painting a mural for a community art project.
Capturing images using a camera to convey a message or aesthetic. Example: Taking high-quality product photos for an advertising campaign.
Constructing physical models of objects or scenes. Example: Building a scale model of a new building for architectural design.
Transferring designs onto materials using a mesh screen and ink. Example: Creating custom T-shirts with unique graphics for a fashion brand.
Using acid to cut into a metal plate to create an image. Example: Crafting intricate designs on metal jewelry.
Assembling various materials and images to create a new, unified artwork. Example: Creating a mood board with mixed media for an interior design concept.
Creating objects layer by layer from digital models using a printer. Example: Prototyping a new toy design using a 3D printer for product development.
Worked example
Discuss how two methods have been used effectively in this message design. (6 Marks)
State the two methods and their purpose:
Introduce the methods (e.g. embroidery and collage) and how they support communication.
Describe the collage technique and visual effect:
Link the method to its aesthetic and communicative purpose.
Describe the embroidery method and its effect:
Explain how it adds to the visual communication or tactile experience.
Function in context:
Discuss how both methods support the goal of the message design.
MATERIALS
Materials are the surfaces or substrates on or from which designs are made. Examples can include but are not limited to paper, card, textile, metal, plastic, glass, touchscreen or digital interface.
Lightweight, versatile materials used for printing, packaging, and construction. In message design, a greeting card showcases paper's ability to carry intricate prints and foldable shapes.
Transparent, fragile material used in architecture, art, and technology. In environment design, a glass facade in a modern building allows natural light while offering aesthetic appeal.
Durable, malleable material used in construction, art, and technology. In object design, a stainless steel kitchen appliance exemplifies metal's durability and sleek appearance.
Lightweight, moldable material used in a wide range of products. In object design, a plastic chair demonstrates its adaptability to various shapes and colors.
Construction technique using individual units of brick, stone, or concrete block. In environment design, a brick wall in a cafe adds a rustic, sturdy character to the setting.
Strong, versatile construction material used in buildings, roads, and sculptures. In environment design, a concrete public bench shows its functionality and minimalistic style.
Flexible, resilient material used in tires, footwear, and seals. In object design, rubber soles in athletic shoes highlight its grip and shock-absorption qualities.
A natural, sturdy material widely used in construction, furniture, and decor. In environment design, a timber deck in a backyard setting showcases its natural beauty and durability, creating a warm and inviting outdoor living space.
Refers to any visual communication which appears on a digital screen, the backlit properties of a screen can enhance colours and tones. Screen is the most common material used in interactive experience design.
Worked example
Explain how one material has been used effectively in this design. (4 Marks)
Name the material + link to its function:
Clearly state the material and describe how it supports the product’s use or purpose.
Support your statement with visible features:
Identify what we can observe about how the material is used or treated.
Media are the manual and digital applications used to visually communicate ideas and information. Manual examples can include but are not limited to pencil, ink, markers, paint and analogue film. Digital examples can include but are not limited to software, apps and online platforms used for graphic, game or interaction design, web development, concept art, illustration, three-dimensional modelling and rendering, photo editing and animation.
Paint-based media like gouache, watercolor, and acrylics offer diverse textures and finishes. Gouache provides opaque, matte finishes, ideal for vibrant illustrations in graphic design. Watercolor offers translucent, fluid effects, suitable for expressive art in message design. Acrylics, known for their versatility and quick drying, are excellent rapid ideation.
Ink, pencil, and pastels are drawing-based media each with unique qualities. Ink, known for its fluidity and bold lines, is ideal for precise illustrations in message design, like comics. Pencils offer control and subtlety, suitable for detailed sketches in product design. Pastels provide soft, blendable colors.
Raster-based media, composed of pixels, are ideal for digital images that require complex color gradients and detailed editing. They're widely used in digital photography and web design, where image manipulation and quality are paramount, such as creating visually rich website backgrounds or enhancing photographs.
Vector-based media use mathematical equations to create graphics, ensuring scalability without loss of quality. Ideal for logo design, typography, and illustration in message design, vectors allow crisp, clean lines and easy resizing, perfect for branding materials like business cards, where maintaining visual clarity at different sizes is crucial.
Worked example
Explain how one media has been used effectively in this design. (4 Marks)
Identify the media + describe its effect:
Clearly name the media and explain what it achieves visually or functionally.
Describe what we can observe about the media:
Reflect on texture, line, colour, and layering as evidence of the media used.
Conventions are widely accepted ways of working in each field of design. They guide how designers arrange elements, use type, draw objects and document environments so ideas are communicated clearly. In Visual Communication Design practice, understanding conventions helps designers to analyse designs and produce solutions that meet client and audience expectations.
In Messages and Interactive Experiences, conventions include typographic rules, grids, layouts, packaging nets, printing, site maps and wireframes. In Objects and Environments, conventions include symbols, dimensions, scales and 2D and 3D drawing methods, as outlined in VCAA VCD support materials.
Layout conventions are shared ways of arranging elements on a page or screen so information is clear, legible and easy to follow. They include consistent margins, alignment, repeating positions for logos and headings, and predictable navigation. These conventions support visual hierarchy and help audiences scan, compare and locate information quickly.
Example exam-style response:
The designer applied layout conventions such as consistent margins and aligned columns to lead the viewer’s eye from the hero image to the call-to-action, establishing a clear hierarchy across the web page.
Typographic conventions are agreed methods of setting type so messages are readable and appropriate for purpose. They include choosing suitable font families, establishing hierarchy in headings and body text, controlling kerning, tracking and leading, and using alignment and spacing consistently so audiences can easily follow, compare and understand written information.
Example exam-style response:
The designer followed typographic conventions by selecting a sans serif typeface for on-screen readability and using clear heading levels, leading the audience through the information in a logical order.
Grid conventions use invisible columns, rows and gutters to organise elements so pages and screens feel ordered and related. Designers place images, type and negative space to the grid, keeping margins and proportions consistent across multiple pages, which strengthens hierarchy, rhythm and clarity in message and interactive design.
Example exam-style response:
The designer used a series of grid conventions to ensure consistent and repeatable distribution of elements on the page, maintaining consistent proportions and margins across the publication.
Wireframe conventions show layouts as simple diagrams without decoration so function and navigation can be tested first. Designers map positions of menus, buttons, images and text, indicating hierarchy and interaction paths. This allows stakeholders to refine structure, user flow and accessibility before committing to final visual style.
Example exam-style response:
The designer developed wireframes to plan the placement of navigation, imagery and text, allowing the client to approve the interaction flow before colour, type and final graphics were added.
Symbol conventions are standardised graphic signs used in technical drawings to represent real components quickly and clearly. Doors, windows, light fittings, furniture and materials are shown as simplified symbols. Because they follow agreed standards, architects, engineers and builders can understand and communicate complex information without lengthy written notes.
Example exam-style response:
The designer used recognised architectural symbols for doors, windows and fixtures so contractors could quickly interpret the floor plan without needing additional written instructions.
Dimension conventions show accurate measurements of height, width, depth and spacing on technical drawings. Designers use extension lines, arrowheads and numerical values positioned clearly and read in the correct direction. Consistent dimensioning helps manufacturers and builders calculate materials, check tolerances and construct objects or spaces to the intended size.
Example exam-style response:
The object designer applied dimensioning conventions with clear extension lines and aligned figures, allowing the manufacturer to fabricate each component to the specified size.
Two-dimensional drawing conventions represent objects through fixed views such as plan, elevation, section and side views. Orthogonal drawings use line types, labels, scales and reference symbols to communicate shape and structure precisely. These conventions allow specialists to read complex information and relate different views of the same object.
Example exam-style response:
The designer produced orthogonal 2D drawings, including plan and elevation views to scale, so the fabricator could understand the product’s exact shape and construction.
Three-dimensional drawing conventions show form and depth using accepted methods like isometric, planometric and perspective. Angles, vanishing points, scale and line quality are controlled so forms appear believable and related to orthogonal views. These conventions help clients and users visualise what an object or environment will look like when built.
Example exam-style response:
The designer created an isometric 3D drawing that followed correct angles and scale, helping the client visualise how the product would appear in real space.
Worked example
Identify two conventions the designer has used to communicate effectively within this design. (4 Marks)
Opening sentence (Name both conventions):
Clearly identifies the two conventions and signals that the response will explain how they support communication.
Describe typographic features + effect:
Point to specific type choices (case, colour, weight, spacing) and explain how they help communication.
Describe layout/grid features + effect:
Explain how alignment, grouping and grid structure organise information and guide the viewer’s eye.
Link back to effective communication:
Conclude by stating how both conventions work together to engage the target audience.
Paraline
Perspective
Object
Environment
DRAWING SYSTEMS
There are a small number of drawing systems which are used to depict designs, each has different conventions and can communicate different aspects of a design.
Isometric
Isometric drawing is a method of visually representing three-dimensional objects in two dimensions, using parallel projection on three axes set at 30-degree angles from a baseline. This technique is widely used in engineering, architecture, and design for conceptualizing complex structures, providing a clear, undistorted view of an object's structure and dimensions.
EXAMPLE
Planometric
Planometric drawing, a graphic technique, represents three-dimensional spaces in two dimensions, typically at a 45-degree angle. It's commonly used in interior design and architecture to provide a bird's-eye view of a room or building layout, effectively conveying spatial relationships and furniture arrangements for client understanding and planning purposes.
EXAMPLE
One Point Perspective
One-point perspective drawing is an artistic technique where all lines converge at a single vanishing point on the horizon line. This method is used in art and design to create depth and realism, depicting three-dimensional spaces on a two-dimensional surface, making it invaluable for architectural and interior design visualizations.
EXAMPLE
Two Point Perspective
Two-point perspective drawing is a technique where objects are drawn with two sets of converging lines to two vanishing points on the horizon. This method is vital in architectural and interior design, providing realistic, dimensional views of structures and spaces, enhancing visual depth and spatial accuracy in presentations and plans.
EXAMPLE
Third Angle Orthogonal
Third angle orthogonal is a technical drawing method where three views (top, front, side) are arranged in a standard layout to represent a 3D object in 2D. It's widely used in engineering and design for precise object representation.
EXAMPLE
Packaging Nets
Packaging net drawing is a flat, unfolded representation of a package's surfaces, including tabs and flaps. It's crucial in package design for visualising and planning the final 3D structure. This method aids in ensuring efficient material use, correct folding and assembly, and optimal design for branding and product protection.
EXAMPLE
Elevations
Elevation drawing is an orthographic projection showing one side of a building or object, often used in architecture and engineering. This technique provides a detailed view of the exterior features, dimensions, and design elements of structures, essential for planning, construction, and obtaining regulatory approvals in building projects.
EXAMPLE
Floorplans
Floorplan drawing is a scaled diagram of a room or building viewed from above, showing the layout of walls, windows, doors, and furniture. It's essential in architecture and interior design for space planning, helping to visualize room arrangements, traffic flow, and the practicality of proposed designs for homes and buildings.
EXAMPLE
TIPS FOR 2D TO 3D DRAWING
Types of Drawing
Design ideas are the initial concepts and inspiration that designers come up with in response to a design problem. They are often very broad and open-ended, and may not yet have a specific direction or focus. For example, a design idea for a new kitchen appliance could be to create a device that makes cooking easier and more efficient.
Design concepts are more focused and specific than design ideas, and often involve a more detailed plan or strategy. They may include sketches or visual representations of the proposed solution, and may involve some preliminary research or testing. For example, a design concept for a new kitchen appliance could be to create a smart oven that uses artificial intelligence to adjust cooking times and temperatures based on the type of food being prepared.
Design solutions are the final product of the design techdrawingdropdown, and represent a fully realized and refined version of the design concept. They may include detailed specifications, technical drawings, and other documentation that describe how the design will be implemented and produced.
THE DESIGN PROCESS
The Double Diamond design process involves four phases: Discover, where designers explore and understand the problem; Define, where they clarify and focus the problem; Develop, where solutions are created and refined; and Deliver, where the final solution is executed and evaluated, emphasizing both divergent and convergent thinking throughout.
The Design Problem
At the start of the Double Diamond design process, a design problem represents an opportunity or challenge to be tackled through design. This stage focuses on divergent thinking, where designers extensively explore the issue by observing, questioning, and empathizing to identify user needs and gaps in current solutions.
What are some examples of design problems
Improving Airport Experience:
The challenge is to enhance the overall experience of travelers in airports, focusing on comfort, navigation, and efficient utilization of services and facilities.
Enhancing Educational Environments in Schools:
The problem involves creating an engaging, flexible, and conducive learning environment in schools that caters to diverse teaching methods and student needs.
Promoting Sustainable Practices in a Community:
This issue centers around encouraging sustainable practices within a community, aiming to increase awareness and adoption of environmentally friendly habits and technologies.
Enhancing Patient Experience in Hospitals:
The challenge is to improve the overall patient experience in hospitals, focusing on comfort, communication, and the healing environment, while making healthcare services more accessible and understandable.
Improving Public Transportation Systems:
The problem involves enhancing the efficiency, comfort, and user-friendliness of public transportation systems to encourage more widespread use and improve the overall commuting experience.
The Discover Stage
Students begin a design project by gathering insights into the problem at hand, using research methods that are often human-centred to understand the needs and experiences of stakeholders. Students employ divergent thinking as they search widely for new information, suspending judgment and keeping the mind open to new perspectives and possibilities.
Examples of activities in the discover stage
Topical Research:
This involves gathering detailed information about the subject matter, including current trends, historical context, and existing solutions, to inform the design process.
Stakeholder Mapping:
This is the identification and analysis of key individuals, groups, or organisations that have a stake in the project, to understand their needs, influences, and relationships.
Audience personas:
These are fictional, generalized representations of the ideal users or customers, created to help understand and empathise with the target audience's needs, behaviors, and motivations.
Mindmaps:
A visual brainstorming tool used to explore various aspects of the design problem, allowing designers to generate ideas, see connections between different concepts, and expand their thinking.
Surveys:
A method of collecting quantitative and qualitative data from a targeted group of people, providing insights into user preferences, experiences, and feedback relevant to the design challenge.
The Define Stage
In the define stage, designers use convergent thinking to analyze research data, clarifying the problem. They create a brief identifying the client, communication needs, purpose, context, audience, and constraints. This brief guides the evaluation of design ideas, ensuring relevance and feasibility within set parameters.
Examples of activities in the define stage
Profiles of Possible Audiences or End Users:
This involves creating detailed descriptions of potential users or audience groups to understand their specific needs, preferences, and behaviors in relation to the design problem.
Case Studies of Solutions Which Solve Similar Issues:
Analyzing existing solutions or products that address similar problems, to gain insights into what has worked or not worked, and why.
Axis Charts Mapping Viability and Effectiveness of Potential Design Directions:
A visual tool used to plot and compare different design ideas based on their feasibility and potential effectiveness in solving the design problem.
Evaluations Prioritising aspects of the Design Problem:
This process involves assessing and ranking various elements or challenges within the design problem to determine which are the most critical to address for a successful solution.
The Design Brief
The design brief is a document which details the requirements of the design project based on the information gathered in the discovery stage and synthesised in the define stage of the design process, the design brief is technically the end of the Define stage of the design process.
What is included in a design brief
Communication needs:
What sort of design needs to be created (For example, a logo, an interior design, an appliance or a digital kiosk interface)
Purpose:
Purpose defines the objectives of the design. It's what the design aims to achieve or the problem it intends to solve.
Context:
Context refers to the environment or setting where the design will be placed or used.
Audience:
The audience includes the end users and other people who are impacted by the design. It involves understanding their habits, mindsets, and experiences.
Constraints and expectations:
These are the limitations and special requirements that need to be taken into account during the design process. This could include budget, time, materials, and technological limits.
The Develop Stage
In the develop stage, designers critically refine their ideas using established criteria and feedback, selecting and evolving concepts for further testing and evaluation. They integrate methods, media, and materials with design elements and principles to finalize details, choosing appropriate formats to present finished solutions and production plans to clients.
Examples of activities in the develop stage
Brainstorming:
This is a creative activity aimed at generating a wide range of ideas and solutions for the design problem without immediate critique or evaluation.
Researching existing solutions:
Involves investigating and analyzing how similar design challenges have been approached and solved in other contexts or industries.
Ideation and design idea sketches:
These are visual or written compilations where designers document, explore, and refine their ideas, concepts, and possible solutions for the design problem.
Design inspiration:
Design Inspiration
Research into Potential Methods, Media, and Materials:
Involves exploring and evaluating different techniques, tools, and resources that could be utilized in the creation and execution of the design solution.
The Deliver Stage
In this stage, designers present a resolved solution in suitable formats, gauging its quality by design skill and principle application. The evaluation focuses on how well it meets the brief, with a fully resolved solution comprehensively addressing each aspect, reflecting a thorough approach to the design challenge.
Examples of activities in the deliver stage
Evaluating a Chosen Design Concept:
This involves critically assessing the selected design idea for its feasibility, effectiveness, and alignment with the design brief and user needs.
Mindmap of Areas Identified for Further Refinement:
A visual tool used to organize and explore specific aspects of the design that require additional development or improvement.
Sketches Addressing Identified Areas for Improvement:
Creating visual representations or drafts that specifically focus on enhancing the parts of the design identified as needing refinement.
Documentation of Design Production:
Keeping a detailed record of the design process, decisions made, and the evolution of the design, often used for reflection and communication with stakeholders.
Design Pitch to Stakeholders:
Presenting the developed design concept to stakeholders, typically in a persuasive manner, to gain feedback, approval, or support for further development or implementation.
The Design Solution
This is the final stage of the design process, where designers propose a resolved solution using appropriate presentation formats. The quality of the design solution is measured by the quality of the design, in that it showcases a high degree of skill and understanding of design, moreover, it is evaluated based on how effectively it responds to the design brief, a fully resolved design solution should be able to effectively discuss how it responded to every aspect of the brief.
Potential Presentation formats for a design solution
3D Models or Propotypes:
Physical or digital 3D models that provide a tangible representation of the design, ideal for object design, environment design, and even some aspects of interactive experience design to demonstrate functionality and aesthetics.
Storyboarding:
A sequence of drawings or visuals that outline a narrative or process, effective across various fields including message design, interactive experience design, and environment design to convey concepts and user journeys.
Video Presentations:
A dynamic way to showcase a design through motion graphics, animations, or filmed prototypes, applicable in fields like message design, environment design, and interactive experience design for a more immersive experience.
Style Guide:
A comprehensive manual detailing the visual and branding elements like color schemes, typography, and layout principles.
Technical Drawings:
Precise, scale drawings that provide detailed specifications, commonly used in object design and environment design, essential for conveying exact dimensions, materials, and construction methods to manufacturers or builders.
Divergent Thinking
is open-minded, curious and imaginative. It suspends judgment, focusing instead on the multiple ways a problem might be solved in unusual, creative or unexpected ways.
Mind Mapping
Expanding ideas from a central concept through visual diagrams to explore various design possibilities.
Brainstorming Session
Gathering a group to freely share and record all ideas, fostering an environment of creativity and innovation.
SCAMPER Technique
Applying different verbs like Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify, Put to other uses, Eliminate, and Reverse to explore new design avenues.
Role Play
Adopting different personas or perspectives to generate ideas and solutions that cater to diverse user needs.
Random Stimuli
Introducing random images, words, or objects to provoke fresh ideas and unexpected design directions.
Convergent Thinking
is analytical, critical, reflective and comparative. It seeks to summarise, categorise and synthesise information in logical and efficient ways in order to clarify, reframe or resolve problems.
Prioritization Grid
Assessing and ranking ideas based on set criteria to determine the most feasible and impactful design solutions.
SWOT Analysis
Evaluating Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats of design concepts to identify the most viable option.
Decision Matrix
Using a structured table to compare design options against weighted criteria for objective decision-making.
Comparative Analysis
Systematically comparing various design options against each other to discern their relative strengths and weaknesses.
PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting)
Evaluating the positives, negatives, and intriguing aspects of design ideas to gain a well-rounded understanding.
Types of Drawing
Design ideas are the initial concepts and inspiration that designers come up with in response to a design problem. They are often very broad and open-ended, and may not yet have a specific direction or focus. For example, a design idea for a new kitchen appliance could be to create a device that makes cooking easier and more efficient.
Design concepts are more focused and specific than design ideas, and often involve a more detailed plan or strategy. They may include sketches or visual representations of the proposed solution, and may involve some preliminary research or testing. For example, a design concept for a new kitchen appliance could be to create a smart oven that uses artificial intelligence to adjust cooking times and temperatures based on the type of food being prepared.
Design solutions are the final product of the design process, and represent a fully realized and refined version of the design concept. They may include detailed specifications, technical drawings, and other documentation that describe how the design will be implemented and produced.
Prototypes are physical or digital models of the design solution that are created to test and refine the design. They may be made using a variety of materials and techniques, and may be created at various stages of the design process. For example, a prototype for a new kitchen appliance could be a 3D printed model that is used to test the overall size and shape of the appliance, or a working prototype that includes all of the necessary electronic components and sensors..
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DESIGN
Factors that influence design refer to the external factors that designers must consider when designing, these often have a profound influence on the design. Each factor may influence either the functionality or the aesthetics of a design at any stage in the design process.
Designers must consider the social and cultural context of their designs and respond to them accordingly.
Social and Cultural factors talk about how characteristics of the audience may influence the design, a designer must make design decisions that consider the demographics, culture and cultural sensitivities as well as values and interests of the audience.
INFLUENCE ON AESTHETIC FUNCTION
In the field of object design, the Japanese concept of Wabi-Sabi, embracing imperfection and transience, influenced the aesthetic of Japanese pottery, valuing simplicity, asymmetry, and natural textures.
INFLUENCE ON FUNCTIONALITY
In environment design, the increased focus on accessibility and inclusivity in society influenced the functionality of public buildings, leading to the incorporation of ramps, tactile paving, and Braille signage for better accessibility.
EXAMPLE
Designers must consider the environmental impact of their designs
Environment factors talk about how the design may impact the environment, often referred to as sustainability, discussing the carbon emissions created in production, the product life cycle '('how long the design lasts and how it is disposed of')' and whether it can be recycled, repaired easily or reused.
INFLUENCE ON AESTHETIC FUNCTION
In message design, the sustainability movement inspired the use of natural, earthy color palettes and organic shapes in graphic designs, visually communicating eco-friendliness and connection with nature.
INFLUENCE ON FUNCTIONALITY
In environment design, the emphasis on sustainability led to green roofs in urban architecture, providing natural insulation, reducing energy costs, and creating habitats for wildlife in city landscapes.
EXAMPLE
Designers must understand the legal and ethical implications of their design and the design process
Legal factors refer to intellectual property, but also the legal and ethical considerations such as whether the product is safe or does not have a negative impact on the community, such as evoking hatred or exploiting vulnerable people, or the workers involved in the production of the design.
INFLUENCE ON AESTHETIC FUNCTION
In message design, the layout and content of cigarette packaging were influenced by legal requirements for health warnings, leading to prominent, graphic health messages dominating the package design.
INFLUENCE ON FUNCTIONALITY
In object design, children's toys underwent changes to functionality due to legal safety regulations, leading to the elimination of small parts and the use of non-toxic materials.
EXAMPLE
Many designs draw inspiration and influence from historical factors
Historical factors refer to how a designer considers similar designs of the past as a means to influence their own ideas, for instance, if a designer is designing a phone, they may look at how phones have evolved over time to determine what people may want next. Additionally, this can refer to how views, desires and values of the community have changed over time or due to key historic events.
INFLUENCE ON AESTHETIC FUNCTION
In message design, the historical Pop Art movement of the 1950s and 1960s influenced graphic design aesthetics, integrating bold colors, comic styles, and popular culture imagery into visual communication.
INFLUENCE ON FUNCTIONALITY
The Great London Fire of 1666 significantly influenced the functionality of urban architectural design. After the fire, new building regulations were introduced, mandating the use of non-combustible materials like brick and stone, leading to safer, more fire-resistant construction in urban areas. This historical event fundamentally changed the approach to urban planning and building materials, prioritizing fire safety in the design and construction of city structures.
EXAMPLE
Technology provides new opportunities to improve design.
Technology refers mainly to the constraints that must be considered by a designer, designers must consider whether they have access to the technology required to produce the design. For example, technological capabilities may influence the form of a three dimensional design and things like the methods, media and materials chosen to produce it.
INFLUENCE ON AESTHETIC FUNCTION
In object design, the advancement of 3D printing technology has influenced the aesthetics of furniture, allowing for complex, fluid shapes and intricate patterns previously impossible with traditional manufacturing methods.
INFLUENCE ON FUNCTIONALITY
In interactive experience design, the advancement of augmented reality (AR) technology influenced the functionality of mobile apps, allowing for immersive, real-world overlays that enhance user engagement and interactivity.
EXAMPLE
Economic factors create constraints and expectations for a design project
Finally, we have financial factors, these refer to budget constraints within the project, but also in intended sale price of the product, service or building. In both of these cases, the designer must consider the cost of the design as well as the cost of production.
INFLUENCE ON AESTHETIC FUNCTION
In environment design, budget constraints in urban development led to the minimalist aesthetic of tiny homes, featuring simple, compact designs that maximize space efficiency and reduce building costs.
INFLUENCE ON FUNCTIONALITY
In object design, financial factors influenced the functionality of flat-pack furniture, popularized by companies like IKEA, allowing for cost-effective production, easier shipping, and customer-assembled products, making stylish furniture more accessible and affordable.
EXAMPLE
Design criteria
Purpose in design refers to the intended use or goal of the design. It answers why the design exists and what it aims to achieve. For example, the purpose of a school's website might be to provide information to students and parents, facilitating communication and resource sharing. Every aspect, from layout to content, aligns with this goal, ensuring the design effectively meets its intended function, whether it be to inform, persuade, entertain, or solve a specific problem.
Context in design encompasses both the physical environment and the era in which a design is created and used. It influences design choices to ensure relevance and effectiveness. For example, a poster for a music festival must resonate with its physical setting and audience culture. Additionally, good design evolves over time, adapting to technological advancements and changing societal norms. This ensures that a design remains functional, appealing, and relevant, like how website designs have transformed from basic early formats to today's interactive, user-friendly platforms.
Audience in design refers to the specific group of people a design is intended for. It considers their demographics, habits, experiences and mindsets. For instance, designing a mobile app for elderly users might involve larger text and simple navigation to accommodate their needs. Understanding the audience is crucial for creating designs that appeal to and effectively communicate with the intended users. It shapes design decisions, ensuring the end product is accessible, engaging, and relevant to those it's designed for.
Worked example
Identify and discuss two factors which may have influenced this design solution. (6 Marks)
One social factor influencing this design is the need for inclusive and flexible public seating that supports social interactionOpening sentence with contention (Social):
Clearly state the factor and the reason it matters. This sets up what you will prove with evidence.
Use detailed design language (Evidence for Social):
Refer to visible features (e.g., open sides, no armrests, colour palette, movable lightweight frames) and link each to inclusion and social interaction.
Opening sentence with contention (Financial):
Name the economic factor and assert the intended benefit (reduced fabrication, storage or upkeep costs) you will justify next.
Use detailed design language (Evidence for Financial):
Cite manufacturing choices (bent tubular frame, single-piece shells), finishes (powder-coat), durability, standardised parts and stackable geometry to prove cost efficiency.
Worked example
Discuss how the context of the design example influenced design decisions. (4 Marks)
The context for this design is a dense urban environment, which prompted the designer to adopt small-footprint form factorsOpening sentence with contention:
Clearly state the context and explain its direct influence on the overall design approach.
Evidence with design language:
Link specific features (e.g., stacked vertical neighbourhoods, compact integrated furniture) to the small-footprint constraint.
HUMAN CENTRED DESIGN RESEARCH
Human centred design research
Interviews
Interviews are one-on-one conversations with users, stakeholders, and experts to understand their perspectives, experiences, and challenges. Interviews are effective because they allow designers to gather rich and detailed information directly from the source, and to ask follow-up questions to clarify and deepen their understanding.
Surveys
Surveys are questionnaires that are distributed to a large group of people to gather quantitative data on their attitudes, opinions, and behaviours. Surveys are effective because they allow designers to collect data from a large sample size, and to identify trends and patterns in the data.
Focus Groups
Focus groups are small group discussions with users, stakeholders, and experts to explore their attitudes, opinions, and experiences in more depth. Focus groups are effective because they allow designers to observe group dynamics and interactions, and to identify common themes and issues that arise.
Audience Personas
User personas are fictional representations of the different types of users who will interact with the product or service being designed. User personas are effective because they help designers empathize with and understand the needs and behaviours of their users, and to design solutions that meet their specific needs and preferences.
Ethonographic Research
Ethnographic research involves observing and studying users in their natural environments to understand their behaviours, preferences, and needs. Ethnographic research is effective because it provides designers with a deeper understanding of the context in which their users operate, and to identify unmet needs and opportunities for innovation.
Competitor Analysis
(Not always human centred research)
Competitor analysis involves researching and analysing the products, services, and strategies of competing companies in the same market or industry. Competitor analysis is effective because it helps designers understand what is already available in the market, and to identify opportunities for differentiation and innovation.
Analysing your audience
Habits
Audience habits refer to the behaviours and routines that users have established in their daily lives. These habits can influence design by providing insights into user needs and preferences, and by identifying opportunities to create solutions that fit seamlessly into users' existing routines. For example, a fitness app that reminds users to exercise during their usual workout time is more likely to be effective than an app that sends random reminders throughout the day.
Experiences
Audience experiences refer to the emotional and cognitive responses that users have to products, services, or experiences. These experiences can influence design by shaping users' expectations and preferences, and by providing insights into the features and benefits that users value most. For example, a hotel that offers a personalized welcome message and tailored amenities can create a positive and memorable experience for guests.
Mindset
Audience mindsets refer to the attitudes, beliefs, and values that users hold. These mindsets can influence design by shaping users' perceptions and expectations of a product, service, or experience. For example, a sustainable and eco-friendly packaging design can appeal to environmentally conscious consumers who prioritize sustainability in their purchasing decisions.
Worked example
Identify and discuss two human centred design (HCD) research methods used in the discover stage of the design process for an Interactive Experience Designer. (6 Marks)
One effective HCD research method in the discover stage is user interviews, which allow the designer to gain in-depth insights into user needs, motivations, and pain points.Opening sentence with contention (Method 1):
State the research method clearly and explain why it is valuable in the discover stage for understanding users.
Evidence with design language (Method 1):
Link to specific details such as question types, recording techniques, or how qualitative insights shape design decisions.
Opening sentence with contention (Method 2):
Clearly identify the method and explain its value in revealing real-world user behaviour and environmental influences.
Evidence with design language (Method 2):
Use precise terms such as "task flow mapping," "environmental constraints," or "interaction points" to show how observation data informs design.
Items within Indigenous cultural and intellectual property (ICIP)
Introduction
The Australian Indigenous Design Charter provides essential guidelines for the respectful inclusion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures in design practice. It recognises the deep cultural significance of Indigenous knowledge, ensuring that design processes honour ownership, intellectual property, and community protocols. The Charter promotes collaboration with Indigenous communities to protect cultural integrity and avoid misrepresentation or tokenism. It highlights the importance of Indigenous leadership and self-determination in projects involving cultural representation, fostering authentic partnerships and mutual respect. In the context of Australia’s journey towards reconciliation, the Charter plays a critical role by embedding culturally appropriate practices across design fields. It encourages designers to engage meaningfully through listening and consultation, considering the impact of their work on Indigenous communities. By following these principles, the Charter not only ensures ethical design but also strengthens relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, contributing to a more inclusive and culturally aware design industry.
Indigenous led
Projects involving Indigenous representation should be driven by Indigenous people, ensuring that their voices, perspectives, and expertise guide the process. This respects their authority over how their stories, symbols, and culture are depicted.
EXAMPLE
The Griffith Mural in New South Wales was developed in collaboration with Aboriginal Elders, ensuring that Indigenous cultural elements were represented authentically. The mural reflects the cultural heritage of the Wiradjuri people, incorporating local totem animals and Indigenous symbolism
EXAMPLE
Self-Determined
Indigenous people have the right to make decisions about how their cultural elements are represented in design projects. This includes veto power over inappropriate use of cultural symbols or imagery.
Example
A school designing a new sports uniform seeks permission from the local Indigenous community to incorporate their totem animal into the logo. The community’s decision on whether and how it can be used is respected.
EXAMPLE
Community Specific
Australia's Indigenous cultures are diverse, with each community having specific protocols and traditions. Designers must work with local communities to ensure cultural accuracy and appropriateness.
Example
When designing signage for a regional tourism site, the design team consults the local Aboriginal Elders to ensure the language used is accurate and reflects the specific traditions of that community.
EXAMPLE
Deep Listening
This involves active, respectful engagement with Indigenous communities, valuing their input and insights throughout the design process. This principle aligns with the Aboriginal practice of “Dadirri,” or deep listening and reflection.
EXAMPLE
Yaala Sparkling exemplifies "deep listening" by integrating the Aboriginal practice of Dadirri—valuing reflection and community engagement—into its operations. Founded by Wiradjuri woman Tara Croker, the brand collaborates with Indigenous wild harvesters and artists to honour native ingredients and stories. Through respectful dialogue, it brings ancestral knowledge into modern products, fostering both cultural representation and sustainability. This approach not only enriches their product but also ensures a meaningful connection with Country and community throughout the design process.
EXAMPLE
Impact of Design
Designers need to consider how their work will be received by Indigenous communities and the broader public, ensuring it does not perpetuate stereotypes or misrepresent cultures.
EXAMPLE
The Indigenous design work promoted by Jefa Greenaway has a focus on storytelling through architecture and urban spaces, to help communicate Indigenous perspectives and foster a deeper cultural understanding among the broader public. This approach is part of a wider effort to decolonise design by embedding Indigenous ways of knowing into mainstream practices
EXAMPLE
Indigenous knowledge
Designers should ask if the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge would benefit the project, ensuring it adds genuine value and is not used superficially.
EXAMPLE
A great example of landscape design that integrates Indigenous knowledge is the work of Jiwah, an Indigenous-led landscape architecture firm. Their approach involves close collaboration with Traditional Owners to select native flora based on cultural and ecological significance. Jiwah ensures that plant choices align with both cultural traditions and sustainable practices, fostering biodiversity and promoting local ecology in urban spaces.
In projects such as community gardens and public spaces around Sydney, Jiwah consults Indigenous Elders to guide decisions on the use of plants with medicinal or symbolic value, enhancing both cultural relevance and environmental health
EXAMPLE
Shared Knowledge
Collaboration with Indigenous communities should be respectful and inclusive, ensuring that any shared knowledge is treated ethically, and mutual benefit is achieved.
EXAMPLE
A fashion brand collaborates with Indigenous textile artists to co-create a collection. Both parties agree on fair compensation, and the artists retain ownership of their designs.
EXAMPLE
Legal and Moral
Designers must respect cultural ownership and intellectual property rights, ensuring that Indigenous creators are properly credited, and permissions are sought where necessary.
EXAMPLE
An art exhibition uses traditional Indigenous patterns. The gallery ensures the artists are credited and receives permission from the community to display works that contain culturally significant motifs.
EXAMPLE
Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP)
Organisations should develop a Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP) that includes commitments to integrate the Australian Indigenous Design Charter into their practices, promoting reconciliation through respectful collaboration.
EXAMPLE
A fitting example of a university embedding the principles of the Australian Indigenous Design Charter (AIDC) into its Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP) is the University of Melbourne's New Student Precinct project. This initiative integrates Indigenous voices and design across multiple aspects of the campus through co-creation workshops involving Traditional Owners, students, and Indigenous architects such as Jefa Greenaway. The project ensures that Indigenous designers are actively engaged in the architectural design and public art elements of the campus redevelopment, promoting authentic cultural representation.
EXAMPLE
Charter Implementation
The principles outlined in the AIDC should be actively implemented to ensure Indigenous design integrity, avoiding tokenism and fostering respect for Indigenous cultural heritage.
EXAMPLE
A government department implements the AIDC by mandating training for all staff involved in design and procurement, ensuring that any Indigenous-inspired work aligns with the Charter’s principles.
Ethical and Legal responsibilities
Avoiding Cultural Appropriation (Ethical)
Cultural appropriation refers to the misuse or exploitation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural elements without permission or understanding. In design, this can occur by using sacred symbols or motifs out of context for commercial gain. Avoiding appropriation requires meaningful consultation and shared ownership of cultural materials.
Respectful representation (Ethical)
Respectful representation involves accurately and sensitively depicting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures in design, ensuring the work honours the perspectives and heritage of the community. Collaboration with Indigenous stakeholders is essential, with designs reflecting authenticity and avoiding stereotypes. This promotes inclusivity and preserves cultural integrity.
Copyright (Legal)
Copyright protects original works of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander creators from being copied or used without permission. However, traditional cultural expressions often aren't covered under standard copyright laws, as they may not fit Western concepts of authorship. Designers must seek legal consent when incorporating Indigenous motifs, symbols, or stories.
